# Middle Persian & Pahlavi script
[Middle Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian), the successor of
[Old Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian) from [Achaemenid
Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire), was used by the
[Sassanian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire) of Iran, and
is the ancestor of Modern Persian, which is currently the official language of
Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This language has been written using multiple
scripts, including [Pahlavi
script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_script), [Manichaean
script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaean_script) and
[Pazend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend). This blog post is the most brief
introduction to Middle Persian using Pahlavi script, a script derived from
[imperial Aramaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic).
This language is written and read right-to-left, however in this blog post
because the main body of text is English, the text is aligned on the left-side.
This blog post requires a browser that supports custom fonts, since I am using
the [Khusro Pahlavi font](http://avesta.org/iranian-font/pahlavi.html). If you
cannot see this blog post properly, a PDF version of this blog post is available
[here](/files/pahlavi/Middle Persian & Pahlavi script.pdf).
# Alphabet
There are 14 primary letters in Pahlavi, some of which are used for multiple
sounds. First, let's look at each letter of the alphabet individually. The
content of this section is derived mostly from {% cite kapadia1953glossary %}.
# n
Sound: n, v, r, u, û, o, ô, rarely l
Modern Persian equivalents: ن، و، ر، گاهی ل
Notes: Joins with preceding f, gE, s, a, l, Z and
G, but not with any succeeding letter. Pahlavi
words ending with t, c, p, k and n, can optionally add an extra final n.
Examples:
1. n (û): a conjunction, meaning and, or; و.
2. nnn (van): a tree, forest, jungle
3. kyn (nêvak): good, beautiful, virtuous; نیک.
4. nDXn (nihān): secret, concealed; نهان.
5. rpn (vafra): ice, snow, hail, sleet; برف.
# f / i
Sound: i, y, e, d, j, g
Modern Persian equivalents: ی، د، ج، گ
Notes:
1. In the body of a word it retains its form f
before n, i, b, k as y,
I!, __B!, q and H!; in all other cases it
lapses into i.
2. f (ê or î): used as an izâfat اضافت to show
relation between two words, as possessor and the person or a thing possessed,
in which case f shows the genitive case.
3. Combines with all preceding letters except n,\_
b,\_k,\_t,\_c and with all succeeding letters except n,\_ b,\_Ë where it takes the forms y, \_\_B!,\_M!.
5. f used as the numeral "one" when it follows a
substantive, e.g. f_aB! (gabrâ-ê) a man; f_TlË (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
6. i used to represent numeral "one", e.g. ZLi (ê-raz): one hundred; یک صد, KLi (ê-rag): one thousand; یک هزار.
Examples:
1. N\_gE (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil
spirit; دیو.
2. rFnp\_f\_rTXË (mâtar-î-pûsar): mother of the
boy; مادرِ پسر.
3. Using izâfat is optional, and when it is dropped, it is necessary that the
qualifying adjective or the thing possessed must precede the thing possessed
or qualified; e.g. rTXË\_rFnp (pûsar mâtar), and
it is the rule that a Q (zak) or fQ (zak-î) is added before the two words, so: rTXË\_rFnp\_fQ (zak-î pûsar mâtar)
4. It is also used as a rendering of Avesta relative pronouns OvjE, WvjE, TavjE, who, which and what.
# gE / F
Sound: s
Modern Persian equivalent: س
Notes:
1. The gE form of this letter is used when it is
the final word of a simple word, or when that simple word is part of a
compound word, e.g. gEAr (râs), gEann (vînâs), Rak_gEann
(vînâs-kâr)
2. The gE form of this letter is also used when
before B,\_Ë,\_n, e.g. t_gE (sût), vH_gEA
(asmân)
3. The gE form of this letter is also used to
represent the numerical cipher 40, forty J\_\_\_A\_jEc (chêhal); چهل
Examples:
1. s|rF (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name
of the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the
Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may
be compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of
God. He is always styled as n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF
(srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility".;
سروش.
2. nvjXpF (spâhân): The city of Ispahan, former
capital city of Iran; اصفهان.
# s
Sound: š (sh)
Modern Persian equivalent: ش
Notes:
1. In Indian manuscripts this letter is generally given as DE, which can be read as š, dâ, gâ, jâ, yâ, ih.
Examples:
1. ivjX (šûi): a husband; شوی، شوهر.
2. nnTFvjX (šôstan): to wash, to cleanse, to
purify; شستن.
3. anks (šikôh): pomp, grandeur, majesty, dignity;
شکوه.
# a
Sound: a, â, kh, h
Modern Persian equivalents: آ، خ، ه
Notes:
1. Can be used as a prefix, denoting "not" or negation, e.g. gEA_nv (a-vînâs): sinless.
Examples:
1. v (hû): a prefix indicating "good", "well";
opposite of sy (dûš) bad
2. tËy (hû-mat): good thought
3. nvL_Ia (aîrân): the home of the Aryans, the Iran
proper; ایران.
4. DEnTEa (aêtîh): existence, being; هستی.
# B
Sound: b, ê
Modern Persian equivalents: ب، ی
Notes:
1. Can be added to words to mean "one", e.g. f_TlË
(mart-ê) a man; مردی.
2. Does not combine with any succeeding letter, and only combines with preceding
i,\_s,\_a,\_r,\_Z.
Examples:
1. nn B (bûn): basis, root, beginning, bottom,
foundation, extremity, end, origin; بن.
2. En B (bôî): to smell, fragrance , smell,
perfume, scent; بو، بوی.
3. nTFbM! (ham-bast): bound together, connected
together; همبست.
4. rTXrb / TXrb (brâtar / brât): brother; برادر.
# r
Sound: r, l
Modern Persian equivalents: ر، ل
Notes:
1. Sometimes l is written as J to distinguish it
from r, specially in Pazend.
2. At the end of some Semitic words it is written as O, e.g. ODX (akhar).
3. Used as the numerical cypher for number 20 (li = bist); بیست.
4. Used as the first person singular pronoun (li=men): I, me, my, mine; من.
Examples:
1. f|r (rûi): face, feature, countenance; رو، روی.
2. ODX_ny|r (levîn-û-âkhar = pêš-pas): more or
less, before and after, first to the last; کم و بیش، پیش و پس، اول تا آخر.
3. Tl (rat): lord, master, spiritual chief,
principal, a Dastur or high priest;
4. KR (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000;
one thousand; هزار.
# Z
Sound: z
Modern Persian equivalents: ز
Notes:
1. Does not combine with any preceding letter but combines with all succeeding
letters.
Examples:
1. |Z (zan): a woman, a female, a wife; زن. The
word is probably from the corresponding زادن or زائيدن (to give birth) from
Avesta.
2. i^|Z (zand): great, vehement, powerful; زند.
3. ajEqnyjz (zîvandakîh): Abstract; life,
existence; زندگی.
4. RZ (zar): gold; زر.
5. kz (zak): A semitic particle, extensively used
in Pahlavi and signifying a Demon. Adjective and pronoun singular & plural:
that, that one, also used in third personal pronouns: he, she or it,
sometimes as a relative pronoun: that, which, who. The word is of frequent
occurence and invariably replaces Iranian word nv (ân) آن. Also, as explained before, kz and f_kz are used in
the beginning of a genitive construction where the izafat اضافت "f" is dropped and the thing possessed or qualified is
placed after the possessor or the qualifying adjective, e.g. n|rh\_r\_f\_kz (zak-î-li-môrv): my bird.
# k
Sound: k, rarely g and y
Modern Persian equivalents: ک، گاهی گ، ی
Notes:
1. Generally used as a sign of past participle at the end of a verb in preterite
form, e.g. ktnk کرده or kTlB برده.
2. It is also used as a diminutive suffix, e.g. kR_Fnp (pûsarak) پسرک.
Examples:
1. nnk (kanû): now, at present, yet, still; کنون.
2. Tlaktnk (kûtak-khrat): short-witted, foolish,
silly; کوته خرد.
3. nnTEyk (kînîtan): Denominative verb from nyk (kîn) malice; to bear malice to, to take revenge
on; کین گرفتن.
4. akk (kakâ): a tooth, teeth; Semitic equivalent
of nvjEy (dandân) دندان.
5. Gk (kam): less, little, small, a few, scarce,
deficient; کم.
6. knvb_ktk (katak-banûk): the mistress of the
house, mater-familias. کد بانو.
7. wtv_ktk (katak-khûtâi): the master of the house,
pater-familias, a chief. کد خدا.
# G
Sound: m
Modern Persian equivalents: م
Notes:
1. Does not combine with preceding n,\_
B,\_k,\_t\_,\_p,\_c,\_K
2. Even in its combined form, it keeps its full form, and it combines with all
succeeding letters except K
Examples:
1. f|_G (mûy): hair; مو، موی.
2. E*|_G (mang): a narcotic drug made from
hemp-seed, hen-bane, a drug used for abortion, Cannabis Sativa; منگ، بنگ،
بنج.
3. EnyG (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly,
invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
4. nvMajX_G (mâhmân): a guest, a visitor, one who
is entertained; as adjective satisfied, pleased, gratified, agreeable,
welcome; مهمان.
5. nntG (Mitrâ): the name of an Yazat: Meher Yazad;
presiding over light, also over faith, friendship and contracts; مهر.
6. nwpntx (mitrâpân): kind; مهربان.
# t
Sound: t, d
Modern Persian equivalents: ت، د
Notes:
1. Does not join any succeeding letter, and does not join with preceding n,\_f,\_k,\_t,\_p,\_c,\_K.
2. Always appears whole in any formation.
Examples:
1. nnt (tan): body, person, the corporal body as
distinguished from prk the spiritual body; تن.
2. E^nnt (tanand): a spider, a cobweb; تتنده،
تنندو.
3. nnTEcnt (tôjîtan): to atone for a sin, to
expiate, to undergo punishment, to plunder, to assault; توزیدن.
4. rkvbnt (tûbânkar): rich, powerful, able,
opulent, competent; توانگر.
5. ajEvjfct_nv (khûn-tachišnîh): flowing out of
blood.
# p
Sound: pa, pha (if initial, also: cha, ja, za)
Modern Persian equivalents: پ، ف (اگر در ابتدا، همچنین: و، چ، ت، ز)
Notes:
1. Appears either as a whole, or as P when joining
the previous letter.
Examples:
1. nnp (pavan = pa, pat): a semitic particle, used
extensive as a preposition with meanings: to, by, from, through, according
to, in, into, on, upon, with, among, about, at, for, as, as to, as if. It
corresponds to Modern Persian پ، بر. It is the prefix for instrumental &
genetive cases. e.g. ODX_nnp (pavan-âkhar =
pa-pas): in the end, at last; پا پس.
2. TFnp (pûst): the skin, a hide, a covering, a
coating; پوست.
3. PXnp (frâz): A preposition with the meaning of:
forth, further, forthwith, on, upon, above, upwards, aloft, back, down,
after, again, opposite, contrary, before, near, forward, together; فراز، فرا.
4. E^|Znp (frazand): an offspring, child, son,
progeny; فرزند.
5. nvGtp (patmân): measure, standard, regulation,
moderation, plan, design, rule, proportion, estimate, compact, agreement,
(golden) mean, metrical measure; پیمان.
# c
Sound: ch, if initial: j, if medial or final: ch, j, z, zh, p, f, v
Modern Persian equivalent: چ، اگر ابتدا: ج، اگر میان یا انتها: چ، ج، ز، ژ، پ، ف،
و
Notes:
1. Does not combine with any of the succeeding letters
2. Combines with preceding E,\_a,\_r,\_G as PE,\_Pl,\_PX,\_PG
Examples:
1. c (cha): an enclitic particle, meaning: and,
also, likewise, even, too, yet, else, always, added to the word it connects;
when it follows a word ending in a consonant, the vowel (i) is conveniently
added to the consonant, e.g. (nari-cha), (kasi-cha); sometimes the vowel (a)
is added to the consonant (hasta-cha).
2. E^nc (chand): how much, how many, how long, of
what length or duration, some, any indefinite quantity; چند.
3. rA_yc (chînâr): the poplar tree, plane tree, the
sycamore; چنار.
4. DEn_gEc (chûnîh / chêgûnîh): abstract noun from
n_gEc (chûn): quality, qualification,
description, whereabouts, peculiarity; چگونگی = کیفیت.
# K
Sound: gh
Modern Persian equivalent: ق
Examples:
1. KR (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000;
one thousand; هزار.
2. KG (magh): a pit, a hole, a row or line of
stones on which a "riman" or "contaminated" person sits successively during
the ceremony of purification; مغاک، مغ.
3. KG (mogh / magh): a magi, a mobed, one who
pratises magism; مغ.
4. bDlKa (aghriya / aghrâya): this word is derived
from B!rKa meaning: top, head, summit,
pertaining to top, pertaining to summit, topmost, of the first quality, the
principal one.
5. nvtKn (vaghtân): a head (of a good being), as
opposed to rA__Gk (kamâr) head of an evil being.
## Letters mixed
The table below shows how different letters mix together {% cite
kapadia1953glossary %}:
# Phrases & Words
1. a_Gvv (Aûhr-mazd): The Supreme Creator, Lord
Ormazd, of Zoroastrian philosophy. Formerly read as Anhômâ.
2. @ (Aharman) اهرمن، اهریمن, is the destructive /
evil spirit in Zoroastrianism. The name is traditionally written upside down.
3. rDX|rp (frôhâr): the guardian angel or spirit, a
spiritual prototype, traditionally nvb|r (rûbân)
soul, and rDX|rp (frôhâr) are quite distinct.
Ravan passes the Chinvat Bridge according to his or her deeds in this world,
whilst fravashi is the sublime spirit which protects its counterpart in this
world as a guardian angle. It is the highest of the five spiritual entities
of which the human being is made up (ahu, daena, baodhang, urvan and
fravashi). Also written sa|rp, Ra|rp; فروهر.
4. N\_gE (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil
spirit; دیو.
5. nvjfPE (yazišn): to worship, part of Zoroastrian
sacred texts known as Yasna: a sacrifical prayer with offerings of Hom; یسنا.
6. ajEIaRDX (ahlâyîh = aša): abstract noun for
(ahlôb) righteous, i.e. truth, righteousness, holiness, sanctity, Asha; آشا.
### The Threefold Path of Asha
The three ethical pillars of Zoroastrianism, mentioned in Yasna Haptaŋhāiti یسنا
هفت هات (Y. 35.4) are rendered in Pahlavi as such:
nvjfyGv (humînišn): good thought (منش نیک)
nvjfnnkv (hukûnišn): good deeds (کنش نیک)
nvjfiyv (hugôîšn): good speech (گویش نیک)
Also see [HUMATA HŪXTA
HUVARŠTA](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/humata-huxta-huvarsta) for more
information.
# Common Persian Names
M_AR_DXn (vahârâm): name of the angel of victory,
popularly known as Behram Yazat; also the name of the 20th day of the
Zoroastrian month, over which Behram Yazat presides; the planet Mars is also
known by the same name; بهرام.
s|rF (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name of
the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the
Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may be
compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of God. He
is always styled as n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF
(srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility"; سروش.
n|r_G (Marva): name of the third of the goodly
created places by Ahura Mazd according to Vendidad I: the modern "Marv",
"Margvan" of the clasics; مرو، مهرو.
PFIa_G (mahest): the greatest, the grandest, the
highest, the longest; میهن.
EnyG (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly,
invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
nvLp (frakh / frakho): prosperous, auspicious; فرخ.
G_YEajE (yâsmen): a jasmine or jassemine, a kind of
flower; یاسمن.
nnTefn (vištâsp): one whose wealth consists of
horses; name of the king of the Kananian dynasty, during whose reign Zoroaster
propagated the Mazdayasnan religion; گشتاسپ.
|_Gvn (vohûman): of good mind, the supreme
intelligence, the Angel or personification of the good mind, Behman Ameshaspend;
بهمن.
nvjfiDXn (nîyânišn): praise, thanksgiving,
adoration, benediction, bowing to salutation, obligation; نیایش.
nvLan (vârân): rain; باران.
nvjeEi (gêhân): the world, the earth, the material
world, property, estate, also sometimes used in the sense of man-folds or
settlements; جهان، گیتی، گیهان.
kajeEi (sâyak): shade, shadow; سایه.
nvjfiaTF (stâyišn): to praise, to glorify; ستایش.
TeEnpF (spêndât): name of the son of King Vištâp
(Gustâsp), the Kiyanian king during whose reign Prophet Zoroaster flourished and
proclaimed the religion; اسفندیار.
rTF (star): a star, a constellation; ستاره.
ajeE (yazdân): an epithet of God, one worthy of
worship, praise, or sacrifice; یزدان.
ajfyLi^ (daryûš): poor, indigent, a darvish, a
monk, a mendicant; درویش.
rkkanv (khunâkgar): singer, a minstrel; خنیاگر.
nvH_gEa (âsmân): the sky, the heavens, the
firmament; آسمان.
nyjEaH_gEIa (âsîm-âyîn): pertaining to silver;
سیمین.
#wzTef (šahrzâd): شهرزاد.
PlnB__Ra (Albôrz): name of the celebrated lefty
mountain-range of Persia, whose highest peak is Mt. Damavand, south of Caspian
Sea; may be read as (harburz); البرز.
nvTeE~ab (bâmdâtân): of the family of Bam-dat;
Bamdat was the ancestor of the family to which Mazdak, the notorious minister of
Kobad belonged, from (bâmdât) meaning day-break, dawn; بامداد.
nvjfr (Rašna): The angel Rašna presiding over truth
& justice and dealing cut reward and punishment at the chinvat Bridge; رشن،
رشنا.
nnTFM_Ar (ramišn): verb, to give joy, delight,
pleasure, cheer, joy, merriment; رامشن، رامش.
i^|Z (zand): great, vehement, powerful; a village,
a town, or a city, a borough, a district; a heretic, a non-believer in
Zoroastrian religion, a revolter against true religion; meaning or
interpretation of a text, commentary of Avesta text in Pahlavi, explanation,
interpretation; زند.
TefnTlZ (zartûšt): name of the prophet of ancient
Iran, whose creed is followed upto this day by Zoroastrians in India (Parsees)
and Iran, the prophet flourished during the reign of the old Kyanian monarch
Gushtaspa, who with his family was the first to accept Zoroastrianism; زرتشت،
زردشت.
gEkvk (kâûs): King Kaus, the second King of
Kayanian Dynasti; کاوس، کی کاوس.
inyG (mînôy): spiritual, heavenly, invisible, a
spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
TERa|rG (morvârît): a pearl; مروارید.
pFs|rnp (Pôrûšasp): a proper name, the name of the
father of Zarathustra, composite word of s|rnp
full, leaden with + pFa (asp) horse, that is to
mean, having a large flock of horses; پوروشسپ.
kgX|rnp_/_w|rnp (pûrnây / pûrnâîk): a full grown
young man, a young man of full age; بُرنا.
TeEsip (Pêšdât): the title of Hoshang, the King
next to Gayomard, whence his successors were called Pesdatyans until the
accession of Kari-Kavat, the founder of Kai or Kayanian dynasty. The word may
mean from sip before + TeE created, or justice or creed-- those believing in the
creed, in vogue previous to that of Zoroaster, or previous rulers or
administrators, or first established (rulers); پیشداد.
C|rip (pîrûz): Successful, victorious; فیروز،
پیروز.
gERap (Pârs): The provice of Fars in Persia (Iran);
پارس.
rsa|rp (frôhâr): the guardian angel or spirit, a
spiritual prototype; فروهر.
Efrp (parîk): a winged figure, a fairy, a witch, a
sorceress; in Avesta it means a demoness, a creature of Angra-Mainyu, whilst div
is Masculine; پری.
nnTErp (Frêtûn): Feredun (proper name), the name of
an illustious monarch of the Pisdatyan family; فریدون.
nvrp (frakh): prosperous, auspicious; فرخ.
PeEFDlp (Frâsîâp): name of an unjust and tyrannical
Turanian King, who incessantly troubled Iran, and had an hereditory enmity with
the Kings of Iran; افراسیاب.
DEvjelp (frâhang): wisdom, learning, science,
knowledge, intellect; فرهنگ.
kvPlp (farjânak): wise, learned, noble, a wise man,
an honourable man; فرزانه.
nvGtp (patmân): measure, standard, regulation,
moderation, plan, design, rule, proportion, estimate, compact, agreement, golden
mean, metrical measure; پیمان.
nvyk (keyvân): Saturn; کیوان.
# Persian Calendar Month Names
nyjEl|rp (Farvardîn): same as nyTl|rp (farvartîn), belonging to Farvar or Fravashi, the
name of the 1st month & 19th day of every month of Zoroastrian Year; فروردین.
tsfPXanatra (arta vahišt): name of the second
Amahraspand (divine deity) in Zoroastrianism, "right"; اردیبهشت.
ta#r|_Ga (amôrtat): immortal, name of the sixth
Amahraspand (divine deity) in Zoroastrianism; مرداد.
naba (âbân): eighth month of the Zoroastrian
calendar; آبان.
|_Gvn (vohûman): of good mind, the supreme
intelligence, the Angel or personification of the good mind, Behman Ameshaspend;
بهمن.
tGynpF (spend-armat): name of an Amesha-spenta who
has special charge of the Earth and women: sometimes it is the mother Earth, it
is also the name of the 12th month of the year and also the fifth day of the
month of Zoroastrian Calendar; اسفند، اسپندارمد.
# Additional resources
- [Introduction to Pahlavi by Prods OKTOR SKJÆRVØ](/files/pahlavi/Pahlavi Primer Prods Oktor Skjaerv.pdf): a great resource with introduction to grammar, a
lot of words and full text translations.
- [Avestan Digital Archive](https://ada.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/): a search
engine for manuscripts
- [Avesta - Zoroastrian Archives](avesta.org/): has some of the texts and other
resources related to Avesta and Zoroastrianism
- [Persian to Pahlavi Dictionary by Bahram
Farehvashi](/files/pahlavi/Persian-Pahlavi-Dictionary.pdf): a dictionary from
modern Persian to Pahlavi (only includes transliterated Pahlavi)
- [Bundahiśn Dictionary by Mehrdad Bahar](/files/pahlavi/GL-bundahisn.pdf): a
dictionary from Pahlavi to Modern Persian
- [Name'e Pahlavi: Self-taught Pahlavi by Fereydoon
Janidi](/files/pahlavi/NPrg.pdf): A book for self-taught Pahlavi in Persian
- [Small Dictionary of Middle Persian](/files/pahlavi/ParsiMianeh.pdf): A small
dictionary of Middle Persian words, along with their Modern Persian equivalent
and transliteration
- [A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary by McKenzie](/files/pahlavi/A-Concise-Pahlavi-Dictionary.pdf): A small dictionary
of Middle Persian words, along with their Modern Persian equivalent and
transliteration
- [An Old Zand-Pahlavi Glossary by Hoshang Jamaspji Asa](/files/pahlavi/An-Old-Zand-Pahlavi-Glossary.pdf): An Avestan to Pahlavi
dictonary
- [Parsi Anjoman](https://parsianjoman.org/): a website and community full of
resources dedicated to preservation of Persian language
# References
{% bibliography --cited %}